Visualizations: To Infinity and Beyond!

Visualizations: To Infinity and Beyond!

Data and information can no longer be tossed to the wayside, packaged and bundled by statisticians and logistic specialists for experts to view and for the commoner to look at and immediately shove the image out of his or her memory retention without any contextual analysis.  As history suggests (Friendly, 2006), data has been used throughout time to create visuals that provide the reader a creative and striking way to represent data for the unaided eye to create and draw conclusions. 

Framework for Visulizations

Friendly (2006) suggests in his Milestones Project that technological innovations and advancements have paralleled new ways to constructing visuals in a representational format.  With the recent burgeoning and emphasis in the handheld and user-friendly era of computers and now tablets, creating visualizations can be as easy as downloading an app and learning how to use the program. 

However, Dragga and Voss (2001) show how one can get caught up in visualizing data for simply the sake of creating a picture with facts and figures.  They show the inhumanity of many visualizations and how they can leave out the humanistic perspective.  One must try to create a visual where the words tell “what can happen” and the graph can tell “how often” the event can or did happen.  When creating a visualization, the creator should keep in mind the audience he or she is creating the visual for and cater to this audience and their sentiments.  Touching and playing on someone’s preferences, ideals, and world view will automatically induce the human intrinsic characteristic of curiosity.  Hence, sparking a reader’s curiosity by thoughtful imagination will lead to the reader themselves to take a whole new look and approach the visual in an entirely new manner.  The visual will become layered instead of ephemeral and 2-D as when one simply looks at a pie chart as the author’s so depict in their analysis.

Once a person who wants to create a visual with relevant data decides that the visual must connect on a humanistic level to create deep and contextual meaning for the audience, he or she must be able to construct a process that allows for the creation of an effective and striking visual.  Shapiro (2010) outlines this process in his article on beautiful visualizations.  He places emphasis on the fact that every visualization should tell a story.  Without a story behind or seen through the image, one cannot take away any lasting and memorable impression or viewpoint the creator was intending to convey through the visualization itself.  The process must have a defining question that motivates the creator to answer through the visual representation itself.  This must happen because as soon as a reader looks at a specific visual, the immediate question ones ask themselves is, “What am I supposed to take from this?”  Creating and shaping a visual around such a question will keep a reference point for the creator to look back and keep his creation in line with when going about the process. 

Furthering the question “What am I supposed to take from this?,” Segaran (2009) focuses on visuals that use geography to create meaning.  He used the example of the British effort to use geography to map out their country through pictures sent in from citizens around the country to literally map out the whole country through such pictures.  I think this idea is amazing.  It allows everyone, the common man, to become involved in memorable and lasting project that anyone can immediately access and say “Wow, I’ve been there!”  Through this collective effort and the compilation of such data through a conceptual visualization, a story is created that is stimulating and draws from everyone’s unique and individualized perspective.  A project using people’s ideas and representations through pictures could be used for any classroom within the Social Studies framework. 

Finally, when creating a visualization, one certainly wants to create a visual that is deemed “beautiful.”  Illinsky (2010) lays out a criterion that rests on four main points.  For a visual to be accepted into the category of beautiful, it must be aesthetically pleasing.  This means using appropriate elements to guide the reader in communicating meaning, revealing relationships, and highlighting conclusions.  Secondly, the image must be novel and provide a fresh look that sparks the viewer’s latent curiosity.  Thirdly, the visual must be informative.  That is, the visual must convey meaning with simplicity and use a context that allows the viewer to say, “I get it!”  Finally, the representational image must be efficient.  Without efficiency in the visual, the reader may have a difficult time engaging the data and gaining the perspective that the creator intended.

Implications

When viewing visualizations, especially in a social studies framework, the teacher must be aware as to who has created the visual and the meaning that person wanted the viewer to engage in.  For one, the image may present a specific bias of the information and discriminate certain data that could possibly be used to create a wholly different visual with obviously different meaning.  The teacher will want to teach the students, just as SCIM-C does, to constantly question and evaluate the visual and derive their own meaning from it and not just accept what the author is trying to say.  This will allow further discussion upon the visual itself and students can create their own views and alternatives to the visual itself.

Motivation Behind the Money

I wanted to focus on a visualization that had profound effects on me.  McCandless (2010) created a representation visual using data from various media news outlets showing the “motivation behind the money.”  I found this creation to qualify as “beautiful” in accordance with Illinsky’s (2010) criterion.  The visual was aesthetically pleasing, novel, informative, and efficient.  I loved how this one-page image allowed me to sit at my computer and think about all the different motivations for spending money.  I really was startled at the amount of money our own government has spent on the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, especially after seeing it’s weight transcribed so large in comparison with the other boxes.  I realized if just a percentage of money was given to faltering youth programs and others educational structures that are so critical to our nation’s progress and future as a global structure, we could help so many with just a chip off the block.  Wow! This visual certainly gave me perspective.  Even though some would say the visual was biased, the visual itself struck my curiosity and gave me the incentive to start looking at other sources to gather data on our war chest in relation to other national expenditures.

Addendum

Using Geograph in the Classroom

Using the chapter concerning the Geograph program in the source entitled Beautiful Data by Segaran (2009) would be a great way to show how visuals can create meaning in a social studies classroom context. The Geograph concept as stated in the former section is a way to use pictures and images taken by people to construct an archive that is maps the geography of Britain is an entirely novel way. I would show the Geograph project to my students via the projector as an introduction and ask my students how do they think this technology can apply to our own study of social studies. I would hope one my students would ask if they could bring their own pictures in to create a visual. Once that happens, I would incorporate my planned lesson on having the students bring their own pictures in to class. The activity would align with people, places, and things and also incorporate using technology in the classroom to create student meaning and critical thinking. Students would bring in 3 pictures of places a memorable had visited, their own domicile or somewhere they think of as “home,” and a place that they want to visit in the future. Then as a class, we could create three different archives with transitions and effects that take the viewer from Memorable Places to Home is Where the Heart Is and to Future Memories. Students would take part in cropping pictures, creating text to describe the places aligning with historical references, and structuring the format of the Geograph visualization. Then, after the initial work is completed, the class could create a unique and personal class website with public availability that parents, peers, and others could see. To formally assess the class, the students would have for one to bring in three pictures to receive credit for that part of the assignment. Additionally, as the students could pick certain “jobs” such as scribe, cropper, investigator, formatter, etc., credit would be given if students completed their jobs. Without each individual’s completion of the task they pick, the creation would not be complete. Each student would thus take on a responsibility that would have a proportional responsibility to the class’ creation and completion the project itself. Since this is a class project, the students at the end of the lesson would take part in a socratic seminar that would be in-class and also available in a web forum so they could comment on the process and discuss benefits/implications/likes/dislikes/what could have been done better/etc. Students who take part in the discussion would receive credit for this final portion of the assignment.

All About Inquiry

Introduction

This week's reading in ECI 535 delved into the topic of inquiry-based teaching methods.  The articles brought to light the benefits of using such a pedagogy, provided insight on what classroom practices created the most beneficial environment conducive to student inquiry, the conditions necessary along with the limitations and challenges, and how goals and authoritative structures can lead to a loss in enabling and fostering curiosity in our students.

Connect with Oral History

One research in the classroom study by Ching Yang (2009) focused on how technology can be used to bridge the gap from the present to the past by using various forms of technology to investigate, learn about, and capture the past.  He described a research study performed in Taiwan that gave students the opportunity to perform an oral history project with the elders of the community.  Yang discussed the benefits of such a study along with the the drawbacks.  Overall, allowing student's to take a hold and learn history through community service and exploration gives students what I like to call "skin in the game." Provide emphatic experiences and learning through curiosity will never be an issue.

Authority Decreases Student Inquiry

Engel and Randall (2008) focused on student inquiry but performed a study concerning the teachers.  This study found that while most of the educators involved in the study were deemed "encouraging," the goals and restrictions by authority disabled student inquiry at some level.  These results call out standardized testing and the role that teachers feel they have to play as they teach to the test.  Teachers can be held by the confines of the goals and objectives set out by their leaders within the school, the district, and the state and national level.  I can definitely see how adherence to strict guidelines and teaching specific content facts and figures would enable a loss in the category of student inquiry.  It seems the two are antithetical to one another.  We can only hope that teachers can find a happy medium in order to facilitate both kinds of learning, ephemeral to keep our jobs, and analytical to broaden our student's horizons.

Best Practices

Roser and Keehn (2002) created a project within the classroom context that focused on finding out what the best methods for student inquiry were based on linking texts, groups, and discussions.  Their findings produced two tables that I copied and pasted to my teaching tool bag.  They established that there were certain "moves and mediators" that prompted and facilitated deeper analytical thought than merely the ask and reply situation that occurs within the typical classroom.  For example, teacher "moves" such as focusing, questioning, probing and "mediators" such as book club tasks, Big Idea journal (I really liked that one), and multiple texts all created an atmosphere that promoted student inquiry rather than deflate it.

Knowing the Process is Critical

Tower (2000) wrote a great article explaining her own process in teaching student inquiry.  She described how she fell into the pitfall of expecting the students to know certain things, how to do these items, and immediately grab the bull by the horns and immediately grasp the inquiry process.  Then, as her efforts were becoming stagnated in student confusion and teacher dismay, she realized she needed to change the whole process.  Essentially, Tower realized she needed to get back to the basics.  That is, she needed to teach students how to read nonfiction texts and learn how to draw information out of them before lavishing them with primary source documents and readings that required knowing how to look at something and begin the process of inquiry.

Reflections

I think this last article was the most important piece I have nearly read this year focusing on education.  While the article focuses on teaching student inquiry, as a new teacher and recent college grad, I can relate this to basically everything I am learning about teaching.  As I make lesson plans that are catered specifically to middle school students, I realize I have to KISS.  Don't inflate words, over-examine something, create generalities, or spit out ambiguous phrases that make sense to college-level students but would be gibberish to young minds.  I realize my lessons, activities, and units need to be concrete and I need to spell out my expectations and directions as clearly as transcribing the lesson itself.

Ching Yang, S. (2009). A case study of technology-enhanced historical inquiry., 46, 237-248.

Engel, S., & Randall, K. (2008). How Teachers Respond to Children’s Inquiry. American Educational Research Journal, 46, 183-202.

Roser, N. L., & Keehn, S. (2002). Fostering Thought, Talk, and Inquiry: Linking Literature and Social Studies. The Reading Teacher, 55(5), 416-426.

Tower, C. (2000). Questions That Matter: Preparing Elementary Students for the Inquiry Process. The Reading Teacher, 53(7), 550-557. 

Simulations and Gameplay as Effective Tools of Learning

Having a Diverse Teaching Toolkit

Teachers are always scrambling to find ways to enrich their curriculum in order to spark their students’ agency.  It seems the most destructive path to apathy in the classroom is sticking to one dogmatic style of teaching.  Having a diverse toolkit that facilitates different modes of learning through direct student interaction seems to be the key.  This post reflects on the methods of using simulations and game play within the context of the classroom.  Research has shown that using simulations and game play can be effective methods to facilitate learning in the classroom; however, these instructional strategies must be used wisely. 

Simulations in the Classroom

Cloud (1974) discusses the benefits and implications of implementing simulation into the classroom.  He discusses how simulations create a unique experience for students to engage in real-world material that involves debates, critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making all through the lens of an actual recreation of a historical event. He also sheds light on some of the impending problems that may tag along with using simulations.  This more or less involves the teacher and how he or she picks the actual simulation to be used.  As with every other piece of material that hits the market, there are always surpluses of materials that have been too commercialized by “for-profit” companies.  Another tidbit to keep in mind when choosing a simulation is to ensure that the model fits the curriculum/lesson being taught.  This is essential in choosing the right simulation to fit the subject matter.

The study entitled “Increasing interest in social studies: Social perspective taking and self-efficacy in stimulating simulations” (Gehlbach et al., 2008) researched simulations and how implementing such a tool can trigger interest or an increase in motivation in social studies students.  The research was comprehensive and hypothesized four different expectations as to whether and to what extent simulations could trigger a positive response in the subject group.  The study researched the GlobalEd simulation and how students could be presented with challenges that could possibly engender curiosity, interest, and increased motivation for studying social studies in light of our globalized world.  However, the study found that while students became aware of the increasing challenges of studying social studies in our globalized world, this did not engender a higher sense acute curiosity and/or motivation. 

However, while many this specific web-based simulation did not create students who were more excited about social studies, these students did realize the importance of how social studies encourages and promotes essential life skills and real-world applications such as critical decision-making and investigate research skills.  For me, this step towards enrichment is step towards success in molding our students into citizens who value education and the knowledge to strive for upward social mobility.

Gameplay

The final piece of literature involved looking into the interactive game called Civilization III (Lee & Probert, 2010).  The two researchers studied a class who had been labeled as underachievers in a typical classroom setting.  The class spent weeks playing this game that presents the player with different situations that allows the player to access everything from building to conquering to economics to government, etc.  The main point that I drew from this study concerned the fact that the gameplay itself could not teach the specific content of the standards and curriculum exactly.  However, once each session was played, the teacher could use the scenarios as building blocks to make connections and tie in important historical lessons such as Manifest Destiny.

Concluding Remarks

Many of our students will have problems connecting historical events to present implications.  Using simulations and gameplay bridges the gap between the abstract and the real.  Students can place themselves in a historical moment and/or use the past to build, create, plan, and organize for the future.  I will certainly be an advocate for implementing gameplay and simulations into my classroom.  However, after the readings, I know the confusion, implications, and drawbacks that can occur if these tools are not used properly.  I know to begin small and not try to tackle something that will put me under water and unable to escape from the abyss of confusion and chaos.  Yet, these tools of learning can certainly be effective and show students how important the knowledge of the past is critical to the preservation of the present and the success of the future. 

References

Cloud, L. E. (1974). Using Simulation Materials in Social Studies Instruction. The High School Journal, 57(7), 273-277.

Gehlbach, H., Brown, S., Ioannou, A., Boyer, M., Hudson, N., Nivsolomon, A., Maneggia, D., et al. (2008). Increasing interest in social studies: Social perspective taking and self-efficacy in stimulating simulations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 894-914.

Lee, J. K., & Probert, J. (2010). Civilization III and whole-class play in high school social studies. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 34(1), 1-28.

Visual History is certainly "real" history

Learning though Visual History

This week’s readings focused on the exploration of visual history.  As I was working through the readings, I was amazed at how one can draw deep and contextual meaning from something as simple as a single painting.  Since the SCIM-C method has been implanted in my brain, I automatically look at something and start to ask the analytical and "trigger" questions.  Hopefully, my students will be able to make connections, draw inferences, and create their own interpretation of an expression of history through art in the near future with as much ease I as do now. 

I really like how Burke (2001) conveys the opinion that viewing history through the lens of artists allow the “power of visual representation in past culture and religion” to be expressed.  Only over a century ago, technological innovations such as the camera weren't in existence.  That meant artists had the sole power to recreate an event as they saw it or someone else described to them.  These pieces of history are certainly shining beacons on historic events in the past.  Burke (2001) argues the visual content is similar to a written record or written text.  Artists in the past were certainly historians in their own right.

Werner (2002) breaks down exactly how many different ways a visual can be read and subsequently draw meaning from that interpretation.  He shows how readers organize their thoughts according to the meaning that they draw from the reading and also the meaning they draw simply from their approach to the reading.  He (and all teachers hopefully) wants students/readers to create agency in themselves by approaching a visual through this differentiated and forked analysis.  Essentially, this relationship of the reader/text creates a level of knowledge where the reader goes from accepting to challenging the author’s intention through his or her image of expression.  This inevitably creates a reader who is questioning, analytical, observant, and critical in his or her thinking.

Finally, Staley (2006) parallels cognitive art as something that communicates a certain level of informative knowledge to the reader.  He states that this form of visual is an essential form for historical research.  Visual content such as images and paintings from the past are as just as important as text in the effort to learn about the past.

All in all, viewing history through the lens of visual content is critical for students to make connections and draw meaning from the past.  Additionally, viewing something such as a painting through the historical lens of inquiry allows each individual to create his or her own personal meaning that could possibly be far different from the actual meaning that the artist intended.  That is the beauty of viewing history through this lens. 

Reflection

Reflecting back on the readings, our classwork this week, and my own work analyzing the Lincoln telegrams and other political cartoons with the SCIM-C and Werner’s (2002) layered reading lens, I realize how important and certainly valid these tools can be in the classroom.  Students get tired of constantly reading textbooks and the opinions and views of historians.  These tools allow students to be the historian themselves.  This method gives students responsibility and ownership in the classroom, which are two critical ingredients for engendering a student who understands his or her own unique role in the world. 

I would like to point to my own work in analyzing the political cartoon created of President Lincoln in his election against his former general, George McClellan.  Students could be given an activity where the class was broken down into groups of 3-4.  Each group would be assigned a particular political cartoon from the Lincoln presidency, or if time permits, the students could be given a list of websites and they could pick their own.  This assignment could be broken down into about 6-7 class periods, as each level of reading the image would take considerable time.  I would not want the students to get bogged down with the specifics of each step and then have information overload.  The students could follow Werner’s (2002) steps to read the image in a different context and organize their thoughts.  Each student would have the chance to make his or her own final interpretation of the image.  After all the groups have spent time formulating their interpretation, the groups would come back together and present their research.  This research could be conceptualized into a visual presentation of some sort.  Each group would essentially be an expert of their own piece of history.  Lastly, the class could engage in a Socratic seminar, discussing their process and how it relates to the broader concept of history and specifically to the unit.

Some of the implications for teaching this way would simply be time.  The students would have to learn how to analyze in Werner’s (2002) fashion or the SCIM-C method.  Hopefully, the SCIM-C method will already be a utilized tool, especially if I am teaching seventh or eighth grade.  Besides the time, I really don’t think there would be any other implications.  I really think this is a new and effective way to create agency in our students, allow them to make real connections with the past, discover bias and truth, and become true historians.

Maps Galore!

Why Maps?

Imagine a world where there is no Internet, no GPS, no cell phones.  Wow! What a scary dream! Now wake up and thank technology for the world that we live in.  Yet, many educators do without the wonders of our technological age while teaching in the classroom.  How can one expect to connect with their students and enforce a citizenship education when they are using materials that could be relics at the local museum?!?  In short, being a Social Studies teacher and not using the readily available digital collections, GIS, and online mapping tools as effective learning tools should be illegal! Reading about all the different ways to integrate methods of spatial learning into the classroom is really awesome.  By using these vehicles of learning, a teacher can link the past, present, and allow the students to make forecasts about the future.  Implementing mapping systems from internet-created to student-created maps give students the opportunity to become explorers.  Without using these methods in the classroom, the teacher loses a critical tool in his or her tool belt.  Furthermore, using the online mapping tools enforces "citizenship competency" (Beal, 2009) in our students.  Is this not the ultimate goal for us teachers? Our goal of creating open-minded, analytical, questioning, curious, and independent thinkers can become a reality if we use the tools and resources that have been made available by the burgeoning of technology in the classroom in the past decade.

Using GIS

Using online mapping technology allows the students to approach a subject/topic/historical event/trends/etc. in a variety of different ways.  Not only is a deep level of historical inquiry involved in spatial learning, students can apply easily accessible software such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) to the topics such as discrimination, segregation, economics, health and welfare, science, language, cultures, etc.  Essentially, the possibilities are endless.  As shown in the article entitled "Using GIS to answer the 'Whys' of 'Where' in Social Studies" by Alibrandi and Sarnoff (2006), teachers such as Hershel have created student-led inquiry projects that shed light on the past and answer "Why did this occur here and not elsewhere?" (Alibrandi & Sarnoff, 2006).  Students can use data, see how the data itself may not be a true display of the historical truth, take the data and create maps, charts, and diagrams from the compilation of information.  What was once loose data can be transformed into a comprehensive display where students themselves are finding answers to questions that relate to their localized area, the region, and even the world. What was once limited to geography classes  and scholarly researchers can be applied to subjects across the spectrum, especially social studies.

Creating Connections through Mapping Technology

Similarly, Webster and Milson (2011) discuss how using digital map technology such as ArcGIS Explorer allows students to research economic development all across the globe.  Using GIS satisfies the major themes of social studies: People, Places, and Environments; Production, Distribution, and Consumption; and Global Connections.  If this technology is easily accessible to teachers, then students have hands-on tools that allow them to create meaning along with tangible and visual displays that evolve to an entire new meaning on their own.  Students can take an introspective look at how they understand the world and go from there.  For me, using these tools give the students' responsibility, thus creating pride in their own work.  This is pivotal to creating a school environment that enforces a open and engaged classroom where students are not afraid to succeed and be proud of themselves.

How to Get There

Complementing why we should use GIS in the classroom, Bolick (2006) provides the educator with a outstanding and diverse list of online resources that can be used to integrate mapping technology within the classroom.  From historical archives that span from ancient civilizations to different geographical areas of the globe, a teacher can access these resources with the click of a button and provide his or her students with resources that will certainly facilitate exploratory learning.  Students must be allowed to be creative, to want to make sense out of things that normally would never "click."  Using interactive mapping technology is a great way to encourage our students to "think outside the box" and of equal importance, to critically evaluate history in order to make history themselves.

Cultural Exploration through Mapping

Janine Schall (2010) further enhances the diverse applications of using mapping technology in the classroom.  Students can create their own maps to create meaning and connection within curriculum.  Students can learn how to create "syllogisms" (Beal, 2009, p. 198), which are paths of understanding.  Not only can they use their personal experiences to connect with science, technology, current events, history, etc., using maps will allow students to work through a cognitive process that involves all of the senses.  This is a great tool to use in the classroom. 

Our Global Society

In closing, using maps is vital in today's global world.  We want our students to be able to function in a rapidly evolving world.  Twenty years ago, businessmen had to travel across the globe to initiate meetings, make and close deals, and promote their business.  Today, one can connect via the internet with "face-time" chats that perform the same function.  Our students have to be prepared for the globalized world that we live in.  Additionally, we as educators must mold our students into individuals who care about peace, progress, and a democratic way of thinking (Beal, 2009).  Without opening their eyes to the realities, injustices, and need for progressive change in our society and others around the world, our vision will never be reached.  While this is only a small piece of the puzzle, using maps by allowing students to take control over their education can certainly take we as educators down this road. 

 References

Alibrandi, M., & Sarnoff, H. M. (2006). Using GIS to answer the “whys” of “where” in social studies. Social Education, 70(3), 138-143.

Beal, C. M., Bolick, C. M., Martorell, P. H. (2008). Teaching social studies in the middle and secondary schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Person Merrill Prentice Hall.

Bolick, C. M. (2006). Teaching and learning with online historical maps. Social Education, 70(3), 133-137.

Schall, J. M. (2010). Cultural Exploration Through Mapping. The Social Studies, 101(4), 166-173.

Webster, M. L., & Milson, A. J. (2011). Visualizing economic development with ArcGIS explorer. Social Education, 75(2), 114-118.

Teaching Effectively is a Multifaceted Mission

Introduction

This week’s readings focused on many different facets of teaching.  I will focus on each topic and try to expound on why one should implement the various methods and strategies such as teaching concepts, assessing students, teaching students to think historically, implementing TPCK as a foundational aspect of education, and different pedagogical approaches when using technology in the classroom and the subsequent effects on student learning.  While these topics may seem disjointed, one commonality arises out of the maze of information.  In order to mold and shape reflective and participatory citizens, educators must teach through inquiry-based learning that focuses on the “how” and not the “what.” 

Teaching Concepts and Assessing Competence

Teaching Social Studies in Middle and Secondary Schools (2009) provides the pedagogical framework for the basis of teaching in the middle grades arena.  This week’s readings focused on how to teach concepts.  It is critical that students fully understand concepts in order to create the reflective citizen.  Implementing instructional methods and strategies that focus on teaching students to be competent citizens through critical thinking activities is a must in the classroom.  If students know how to work through perspectives, biases and problems, then stereotypes and assumptions can be broken down.  If students understand the issue, then the facts and figures will follow.  Additionally, the reading focused on assessment strategies.  Everything from pre-assessment to checklists to checking competence strategies was outlined.  These readings are merely part of the greater whole of the wealth of information on how to effectively teach in the classroom.  Dr. Beal’s (2008) textbook will always be kept near my desk and frequently used during my student teaching as I continuously formulate my own style to teaching.

Teaching as an Interconnected Discipline

Tying into how to effectively teach, Mishra and Koehler (2006) argue that there are many flaws in teaching with technology.  They insist that while many educators know what to teach, they have a difficult time using technology in the classroom to connect with the content.  Teachers may know what to teach, but there is a link missing when connecting pedagogy with content through technology in the classroom.  By showing these fallacies of education programs and current ways of structuring teacher workshops for example, they have created a framework that they insist is critical for educators to know how to teach technology to their students and focus on the content as well.  Their theoretical framework is called “Technological pedagogical content knowledge” or “TPCK.” The researchers provided examples on educational programs that forced teachers to use technology to solve problems and diverge from the typical genre of just showing teachers how to use software in the classroom.  Interconnecting technology, content, and pedagogy is essential to connect with students and mold them into analytical thinkers who can work with technology to solve today's problems by discovering the past (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Manger versus Facilitator

Furthering the topic of technology, content, and pedagogy, Manfra and Hammond (2008) investigated how important a teacher’s pedagogy influenced his or her teaching.  Their article reinforced TPCK as a critical facet of an educational framework and positively framed the interconnected of the three nodes of teaching.  However, they evidenced that while Mishra and Koehler (2006) purported that technology drove their decisions in the classroom, pedagogy had the greatest influence on how students learned.  Their study investigated two current teachers and how the methods of how they taught.  Their findings concluded that each teacher choose a different style/method as a leader in the classroom in order to facilitate lessons and subsequent student acquisition of knowledge.  One teacher performed as a manager and the other teacher acted as a facilitator.  Their findings suggest that if teachers want to implement a constructivist style of teaching, then teachers must realize their pedagogical aims and adjust them as needed in order to create a classroom environment that supports this style of learning (Manfra & Hammond, 2008).

Teaching Students to Think Historically

VanSledright (2004) discussed why is it important for educators to teach students to think in a historical manner and how to perform this arduous task.  This ties into the other readings in that we as educators should try to implement methods into creating a classroom that implements constructivist methods of teaching.  Giving students responsibility, allowing them to become free and independent thinkers, and giving students the opportunity to research the past using their own eyes and ears will bridge the gap between learning facts and truly understanding the historical implications of a past event in history.

Concluding Remarks

As the countdown dwindles towards my impending student teaching experience, the anxiety grows.  Thankfully, I have these blog posts to work through and critically examine the wealth of information, advice, strategies, theories and methods that have overtaken my brain throughout the semester.  I really have enjoyed soaking up all the necessary base knowledge of why, what, and how to effectively teach Middle Grades Social Studies.  Yet, the true challenge will come when I enter the classroom full of students who will love or hate me.  I can only hope that I can apply everything that I have learned and look back at my experience, and say “Wow, what an experience! Now, someone please offer me a job!!!”

Bibliography

Beal, C. M., Bolick, C. M., Martorell, P. H. (2008). Teaching social studies in the middle and secondary schools. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Person Merrill Prentice Hall.

Manfra, M. M., & Hammond, T. C. (2008). Teachers’ Instructional Choices with Student-Created Digital Documentaries: Case Studies. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 41(2), 223-245.

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2006.00684.x

VanSledrigh, B. A. (2004). What does it mean to think historically... and how do you teach it? Social Education, 68(3), 230-233.

Delving into Discussions

Delving into Discussions

Introduction

     Implementing meaningful discussion in the classroom can be a very arduous task, especially for the pre-service such as myself.  After powering through all this week’s reading in ECI 535, I certainly have the wealth of knowledge, strategies, and proactive plans to create a classroom that is conducive for discussion.  In the article asking whether or not implementing discussion-based learning is worth the effort, the author Diane Hess certainly agrees that it is worth a shot (Hess, 2004).  This blog focuses on why discussions in the social studies classroom should be employed, how they can be successfully put into action with beneficial results, along with the benefits/costs of placing this methodology into the framework of the classroom.  Additionally, I will try to weigh the pros and cons using either direct discussion versus web-based discussion, incorporate discussion as a successful strategy that will foster cooperative learning skills, and finally, show how technology can be used in the classroom to facilitate inquiry-based projects.

"One Voice, One Vote"

     I remember as a student, hearing the teacher drone on and on, half-listening to his or her speech as I wondered when the lunch bell would ring.  Now, this doesn’t mean I was not listening.  If she called on me, I knew the answer like a parrot who can repeat anything he hears.  Now, I realize not everyone has a photographic/auditory memory that can instantly remember all the little details and grasp the general concept at the same time.  Discussions give the student a voice.  As a citizen, it is their duty and responsibility to be a full, participatory citizen.  Just look at the statistics, our age group has the lowest voter turnout ratios as compared to those who have some skin in the game and are seriously worried that Social Security will run out before they retire.  Yet, our generation is crying about not being able to get jobs out of college!  Well, be the change!!!  Start a grassroots movement, community-outreach program, write a letter to your senator, sign a petition; students of the younger generation need to realize the potential to spark change through civic action.  Teaching and enforcing through repetition the social skills necessary to achieve in life is critical for our student’s futures.  Effective discussion enables social skills to form (Johnson, Johnson, & Holubec, 1988).  Being courteous, respectful, thinking critically through a topic, asking questions, giving feedback; these are real-world activities that happen every single day in the workplace, at the dinner table, or a web-based conference with clients in China.  As a future middle school teacher, I never realized to the large extent that we will/need to be teaching our students social skills on a daily basis.  I have certainly printed out the “Teaching Cooperative Skills” article and will have it in my handy ledger.  It is critical that students know how to communicate effectively with others.  With the ever-growing interconnectedness of the world through globalization, the younger generation must be prepared.  Our students must not only be prepared, but they must be competitive in a growing global marketplace where Asia has produced a 200% increase in college graduates the past decade (The Economist, 2011).

Why Discussion???     

     First and foremost, why do we want to construct a classroom that engenders thoughtful and intelligent discussion anyway?  According to Hess (2004), our goal as social studies teachers is to create civic-minded, participatory citizens who know how to engage, reflect, and think critically about the world around.  Yet, I do see why many teachers do not implement discussion in their classrooms.  They believe discussion takes away from their power (they talk too much), students will not delve deep enough into the topic to draw any meaningful conclusions, and discussion is dominated by a few.  Also, the final factor for not creating an environment that facilitates successful discussion is that students are simply unprepared.  This final causation is the primary reason from my personal experience as to why discussions do not work.  Even in college, this was always the case.  I really like the author’s insistence that in order to have discussion that is thought-provoking and ends with student comprehension and growth, the teacher must plan the discussion well in advance (Hess, 2004).  To me, that is the most salient point of the article that I will take with me as I tread into the murky waters of my first-year in teaching. 

Facilitating Discussion

     Secondly, how do facilitate any discussion at all?  What are the methods? For one, teachers want to create what I like to call a “community of learning” (thanks to Dr. Geena Ray McNeil, my favorite professor of all time).  I believe the Journey to Excellence author’s call a similar methodology the “Socratic Method” (Socratic Seminars, 2011).  This method creates a structured classroom where the students and teachers are equal.  The teacher must be a facilitator, guiding instruction, keeping the class on track, much like a moderator in a debate.  UNC Chapel Hill Political Science and History program has a variety of professors who use everything from traditional lecture style to classes that are explicitly debate format.  For those professors that implemented the Socratic Method, encouraging discussion and creating communities of learning, I drew and retained so much knowledge.  Not only did I gain knowledge, I learned how to speak, converse, and debate properly with others who have opinions and deep-seated passions that may have been far different than mine. 

Dr. Beal’s (2009) chapter “Learning Through Small Groups, Questions, Role Playing, and Simulations” only further enhanced the methods and strategies that facilitate student interaction and responsibility.  These types of learning can all be associated with discussion-based activities.  They all have the same connection to one another; that is, each and every one of these strategies involves direct student participation through giving each and every student a voice in the classroom (Beal, Bolick, & Martorella, 2009).  I constantly have to add to my “How to Successfully Teach Social Studies” cheat sheet on my computer!  This may seem asinine, but everyone has to be prepared, an as an OCD person, cheat sheets and quick-reference guides are my friend, otherwise I would get lost in the details!

Face-to-Face Versus Web-Based Discussion

     Speaking of giving student’s voices in the classroom, the article “Classroom discussion and threaded electronic discussion: Learning in two arenas” compares and contrast the effectiveness of discussion via the classroom or the web (Larsen & Keiper, 2002).  There seems to be reason to continue research in this area.  I did enjoy reading about the author’s findings and their subsequent discussion and analysis.  I do agree that face-to-face discussion enforces, molds, and shapes verbal communication skills.   A computer can never replace quick-thinking, in your face, have to be ready to respond intelligently, kind-of-communication that one experiences at a job interview, an impromptu drop-in/inspection by the head boss at your job, or a media question-and-answer session.  However, web-based debate can provide for a deeper discussion as students can take the time to think about their replies or perform additional research before they “speak their mind” (Larsen & Keiper, 2002).  Through my experience, both outlets for discussion can have replies of equal passion and sincerity.  Also, the web-based discussion may allow for students who do not predominantly express their thoughts and opinions in a verbal manner to get a chance to “voice” their opinions and provide meaningful analysis.  I believe both tools are effective at generating knowledge through discussion, yet, face-time will always be reality.  I hope that all this new technology does not hinder progress in the arena of verbal skills, for this will certainly be devastating to our already impersonal world.

Technology and Discussion

     Finally, Dr. Beal’s chapter “Using Technology to Enhance Social Studies Instruction” is a useful resource for a quick-view on how to implement a technology-enhanced classroom (Beal, Bolick, & Martorella, 2009).  If I have learned only one thing so far during my career so far as a MAT student at NC State (I have learned an exponential amount), I will carry the knowledge and tools of how to implement technology in the classroom.  This is vital to connecting with our young generation.  Tying this concept with discussion, a teacher can allow his students to create blogs, perform WebQuest research projects, show students how to research through digital history archives, the possibilities are endless! 

Bibliography

Beal, C., Bolick, C. M., & Martorella, P. H. (2009). Teaching Social Studies in Middle and Secondary Schools (5th Edition ed.). Prentice Hall.

Hess, D. E. (2004). Discussion in Social Studies: Is it Worth the Trouble? Social Education, 68 (2), 151-157.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Holubec, E. J. (1988). Cooperation in the Classroom. Interaction Book Company.

Larsen, B. E., & Keiper, T. A. (2002). Classroom discussion and threaded electronic discussion: Learning in two arenas. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education , 2 (1). 

Available: http://www.citejournal.org/vol2/iss1/socialstudies/article1.cfm.

Socratic Seminars. (2011). Retrieved September 1, 2011, from Journey to Excellence: http://www.journeytoexcellence.org/practice/instruction/theories/miscideas/socratic/.